A Look at Learning Theory for Reducing Stress and Developing Top Performers

Guelph, ON July 28, 2025

Who doesn’t want to produce a performance athlete who is less stressed, experiences fewer setbacks and enjoys improved welfare? It has been shown that correct application of learning theory principles, starting from a young age, can clear the track.

Learning theory explains how each horse acquires, processes, and remembers the knowledge they need to perform as a racehorse. For handlers this means developing a deep understanding of how a horse learns. Naturally gifted horsepersons are already employing some of the principles, often without even knowing it, with their impeccable timing of cues.

In the past two decades, both social licence to operate and equine welfare have come to the forefront. Failing to grasp how the horse’s brain works (both their capabilities and limitations) can lead to confusion, unnecessary stress, and dangerous behaviors. Conversely, understanding equine learning theory can streamline training, lessen the chances of injury to both horse and handler and improve efficiency in training.

How Foal NZ is Using Learning Theory for the Win

Globally recognized for their success training thoroughbred foals, Foal NZ has been achieving remarkable results in New Zealand. Through utilizing learning theory they have completed over 35,000 training sessions without injury for the past two decades. Yearlings fetching million-dollar price tags and Group One race champions such as ‘So You Think,’ ‘Military Move,’ and ‘Jimmy Choux’ emerged from the program, earning acclaim in Thoroughbred racing circles.

Learning theory is a way of explaining the different types of training typically used with horses and contains four main quadrants that explain how consequence is used to shape behavior. Sally King of Foal NZ explains how they use learning theory to create confident, capable young athletes.

<Operant conditioning chart reprinted with kind permission of World Horse Welfare>

The Foal NZ team use primarily positive and negative reinforcement to encourage the foals to learn the desired behavior while becoming confident in both their ability to learn and their relationships with people. Using negative reinforcement (removing a cue the horse doesn’t enjoy as soon as the horse responds), the handler will ask the foal to move forward using pressure from a rope around the foal’s rump, releasing the pressure as the foal moves the first foot off the ground. Once the foal is confident being touched by people, then they will start to include positive reinforcement (doing something the horse likes) by offering the foal neck scratches once a desired behavior is performed. “This encourages the foal to try to find the solution to what we are asking as they feel relaxed and confident in their abilities – the perfect mental state for accelerated learning,” says King.

Positive punishment (adding something the horse does not like such as vocal or physical reprimand) is less effective than other methods. An example of positive punishment is when a horse rears and ‘shanking’ the horse’s face is employed to punish them. While this may work temporarily as the horse attempts to avoid pain, numerous studies in children have shown that using positive punishment creates anxiety and fear and reduces brain function. Likewise, if the horse is afraid, they are hindered from using their brain to find solutions. Handlers that can recognise stress from facial expressions, muscle tension, and behaviors can pre-empt the rear by changing the situation to reduce tension.

Negative punishment (taking something away that the horse enjoys or values) is generally not recommended as this may cause stress and increase anxiety.

Desensitising and flooding are two learning concepts that have also been used in training. Desensitising involves gradually getting the horse accustomed to something, while flooding entails exposing the horse to a frightening stimulus in an intense and unavoidable manner. For instance, a young horse may spook or hesitate at a particular part of the track during their morning workout due to something new or unusual appearing in that area. If a colt spooks and stops, and the handler was to tie them or hold them so they were forced to stay near what was frightening them, this would be called flooding. Eventually the horse would stop showing the fear behaviors but only because they have learned that nothing they do will make the scary object go away. It is not because the horse now feels comfortable in that area. Flooding can have a compounding effect called “trigger stacking.” Initially, the horse may suppress signs of fear, but as stress accumulates and the threshold is crossed, it can lead to sudden, intense reactions or behavioral outbursts.

In contrast, desensitization could involve putting more distance between the horse and the ‘scary’ area at first. They may pass that area alongside another horse to gradually increase comfort with that part of the track, enabling pace to be maintained in future laps. A jockey that can sense his mount starting to hesitate or veer away can use their powers of prediction to desensitize and foster confidence rather than risk escalating stress.

Another well-applied example of learning theory is how trainers typically ‘shape’ responses when introducing horses to the starting gates. Trainers typically break down the elements of being able to use starting gates successfully into multiple parts, gradually going from walking past the gates to walking through open gates following a lead horse, to being beside the lead horse, to stopping inside the open gates, to stopping with one gate closed, then two, then waiting inside, then breaking at a walk and subsequently faster gaits. This way of training called ‘shaping’ also considers the horses ethology in understanding that they are social, prey animals and can feel uncomfortable being restricted in small spaces.

Timing and consistency are arguably the most important tenets of effective training; if the horse can predict what the handler or rider wants and knows they will consistently ask for the behavior in the same way each time, they are much more likely to perform successfully and confidently.

Effective training relies on the simple relationship between the cue, the response and the reinforcement and being able to read stress levels. “In the bloodstock industry, young horses are more likely to be exposed to a wider range of handlers and environments than sport horses but will typically have to perform a smaller range of behaviors than a sport horse,” says King. Thorough training of cues and responses will set the horse up for future success when a wide range of handlers, with varying experience ask the horses to perform behaviors during varying states of arousal.

A good resource for short learning theory videos are the ‘Don’t Break Your Vet’ series, created by Dr. Gemma Pearson, including Don’t Break Your Vet – Leading and Trotting up. They are only a few minutes in length and show how one can effectively create desirable behaviors rather than managing unsafe behaviors.

Using a training system that uses clear principles of learning and lessens the occurrence of conflict behavior, avoidance and escape behaviors has positive outcomes for both horse and human safety and welfare. A young horse that has been trained this way will be more compliant, better able to cope with environmental and social changes and consequently safer. Not only that, but they will feel like they can predict their world, succeed at their job and have some sense of control over what happens to them – all things that increase self-confidence and thus optimise performance.

Within a busy yard, there are time pressures often resulting in limited time to achieve results. Using clear and consistent approaches based on learning theory results in quicker and more robust training, more efficient use of staff time and therefore increased productivity; and for most organizations, improved commercial viability.

Study on Humans Reading Equine Behavior

This brings us to the next question – How well can you tell? Can a wide range of horse handlers accurately gauge a horse’s behavior as positive, neutral or negative? Dr. Katrina Merkies, a professor in the Department of Animal Biosciences at the Ontario Agricultural College has collaborated on numerous horse behavior studies and recently published a paper on this very topic.

As it turns out, most of us might not be as perceptive as we think. Merkies’ recent study explored how accurately people can interpret horse-human interactions by looking at photos and watching videos. On average, participants correctly identified whether a situation was positive, negative or neutral only about 52% of the time, which is barely better than chance.

https://youtu.be/peOPRMgStuw?list=PLyInkrl6BP-JK02mECagqIGNQMyC4sURM
In a video interview, Dr. Katrina Merkies discusses a study on the Success of Human Categorisation of Horse Behavioral responses depicted in media. You can skip ahead and test your skills with a playlist of short video clips.

To establish a benchmark, the researchers first had equine behavior specialists evaluate the same media. Their assessments were treated as the gold standard. When the study participants viewed these clips, their interpretations often missed the mark—unless the emotional cues were especially obvious. For instance, people were more likely to recognize a negative scenario when a horse clearly refused to walk across a tarp, or a positive one when a foal willingly approached a person for attention.

These results raise important questions about how well we understand the emotional lives of animals, and how that understanding—or lack thereof—can impact their welfare and how we approach training.

Subtle Signs

While people were somewhat successful at identifying obvious emotional cues in horses, the study revealed a significant gap in recognizing more subtle indicators. According to Dr. Merkies, many of these nuanced signals are found in the horse’s facial expressions. Participants often reported focusing on the horse’s face to gauge their emotional state but frequently overlooked finer details.

Some of the key subtle cues included the direction of the horse’s ears, tension lines around the eyes, and the flaring of nostrils. These small but telling signs can reveal a lot about how a horse is feeling—whether they are anxious, curious, or relaxed. Unfortunately, these indicators are not always easy to spot, especially for those without specialized training in equine behavior.

Improving our ability to recognize these subtle cues could raise the bar for increasing positive human-animal interactions and improving the chances of early intervention at the first sign of physical issues.

Does Self-Awareness Help Us Understand Horses?

One of the central questions of the study was whether people who are more in tune with their own bodily sensations—such as heartbeat, breathing, or muscle tension—are also better at interpreting the emotional states of horses. This idea stems from human psychology research, which shows that individuals with greater internal awareness, or interoception, tend to be more empathetic toward others.

To explore this in the context of human-horse interactions, the researchers used a validated tool called the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA-2). This questionnaire measures how aware people are of their internal bodily states across eight dimensions, including emotional awareness, attention regulation, and body listening. Participants rated themselves on a scale from 0 (not at all) to 5 (very much) for each item.

Participants were asked to evaluate the various horse-human interaction clips before the MAIA-2 results were recorded to avoid skewing the results. Surprisingly, the results showed no significant correlation between a person’s interoceptive awareness and their ability to accurately assess the horse’s emotional state.

This unexpected outcome raises several possibilities. It could mean that interoceptive awareness simply doesn’t translate across species, or that the MAIA-2 isn’t the right tool for this kind of cross-species empathy. Another possibility is that the participants—many of whom were highly experienced with horses—relied more on their practical knowledge than on emotional intuition when evaluating the clips.

Learning to See What Horses Are Telling Us

The study highlights a clear need for improvement in how people perceive and interpret subtle equine behaviors. So how can we get better at this? According to Dr. Merkies, education is the obvious starting point—but it’s not the whole solution. “We can learn about these cues,” Merkies explains, “but being able to apply that knowledge in real-life situations is a different challenge.”

One promising approach is the use of tools like the Horse Grimace Scale which can help observers assess facial expressions and other subtle signs of discomfort. These tools are gaining traction in professional settings; for example, the Hamilton Mounted Police unit uses facial grimace scoring as part of their daily horse care routine. Incorporating such practices into everyday horse management can train people to notice and interpret the finer details of equine behavior.

Dr. Merkies emphasizes the importance of shifting our perspective: “We need to stop, listen, and pay attention—not from an anthropomorphic viewpoint, but by trying to understand how the horse is experiencing the situation.” This means resisting the urge to project human emotions onto horses and instead learning to see the world through their eyes.

Challenging Industry Norms

Another barrier to better understanding horses is the normalization of certain behaviors within the equine industry. “There are a lot of myths that get passed down and accepted as just the way things are,” says Dr. Merkies. Take, for example, a horse pinning their ears when the girth is tightened. This is often dismissed as the horse being a grouch or even ‘normal’ behavior for that horse, but this mindset can prevent us from asking deeper questions: Why is the horse reacting this way? What are they trying to communicate? Is there a physical reason for this reaction?

Another great example of negative feedback, often ignored or normalized, is a horse that displays discomfort while being groomed by constant fidgeting, head tossing or grimacing.

Again, the discomfort should be acknowledged and addressed, perhaps with softer brushes or counter-condition using positive reinforcement. Is there a physical issue that requires veterinary intervention?

By challenging long-held assumptions and encouraging critical thinking, the equine community can move toward more benevolent and informed interactions with horses.

Positive Reinforcement – Building Better Bonds

One of the most promising ways to improve horse training and welfare is through the use of positive reinforcement—a method that rewards desired behaviors to encourage their repetition. Dr. Merkies emphasizes that this approach not only works but often leads to better outcomes than traditional methods that rely on punishment or pressure.

Despite its effectiveness, positive reinforcement is sometimes misunderstood. Common myths suggest it might make horses ‘mouthy’ or lead to weight gain from treat overuse. Others argue it’s unnecessary because a horse should obey out of affection or loyalty. These misconceptions can discourage people from adopting more compassionate and effective training techniques.

Positive reinforcement doesn’t have to be complicated—or even food-based. While treats are a common and convenient reward, other reinforcers can include scratches, companionship, or access to a favourite location. The key is understanding what motivates your individual horse.

Dr. Merkies offers a simple but powerful example: “When you go to halter your horse, do they come to you, ignore you, or turn away?” These responses are forms of feedback. Even subtle behaviors—like a horse turning its head slightly away when approached—can signal discomfort or reluctance

Recognizing and responding to these cues can transform training into a more cooperative and enjoyable experience for both horse and handler.

Ultimately, positive reinforcement fosters a relationship built on trust and mutual respect. “It’s super satisfying,” says Dr. Merkies, “when they come running up to the gate or whinny from the field. Then I know they’re looking forward to the training session.”

The benefits of a horse experiencing more positive interactions with humans than negative ones are obvious from a welfare and safety standpoint. When a horse is repeatedly exposed to negative interactions with humans, they may develop fear or resistance, which can make handling more challenging and increase the risk of injury for both the horse and the handler. If you are looking for ways to use more carrot and less stick to reduce stress and setbacks, consider applying the principles of learning theory to your horse training program.

Equine Guelph offers both short courses and an in-depth 12-week online program in horse behavior.

Short courses link: thehorseportal.ca/courses/

12-week Equine Behavior course link: uoguel.ph/eq-behaviour

References:

https://www.foalnz.com/page/research/
Sally King, Leigh Wills, Hayley Randle,

Early training of foals using the ISES training principles, Journal of Veterinary Behavior, Volume 29, 2019, Pages 140-146, ISSN 1558-7878,

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.11.001

Merkies K and Trudel K (2024). How well can you tell? Success of human categorisation of horse behavioural responses depicted in media. Animal Welfare, 33, e50, 1–11 https://doi.org/10.1017/awf.2024.55

Operant conditioning chart reprinted with kind permission of World Horse Welfare https://www.worldhorsewelfare.org/advice/training-how-do-horses-learn

The Horse Grimace Pain Scale: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Horse-Grimace-Pain-Scale-HGS-The-Horse-Grimace-Pain-Scale-with-images-and-explanations_fig7_260950013

Dalla Costa, Emanuela & Minero, Michela & Lebelt, Dirk & Stucke, Diana & Canali, Elisabetta & Leach, Matthew. (2014). Development of the Horse Grimace Scale (HGS) as a Pain Assessment Tool in Horses Undergoing Routine Castration. PloS one. 9. e92281. 10.1371/journal.pone.0092281.

-End-

For the editor:

Notes to Editor:

Equine Guelph is the horse owners’ and care givers’ Centre at the University of Guelph in Canada. It is a unique partnership dedicated to the health and well-being of horses, supported and overseen by equine industry groups. Equine Guelph is the epicentre for academia, industry and government – for the good of the equine industry as a whole. For further information, visit www.equineguelph.ca.

Story by: Jackie Bellamy-Zions, Equine Guelph

Photos: (images available upon request)

Story weblink: https://thehorseportal.ca/2025/07/a-look-at-learning-theory-for-reducing-stress-and-developing-top-performers/

Video Interview with Dr. Merkies:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=peOPRMgStuw
In a video interview, Dr. Katrina Merkies discusses a study on the Success of Human Categorisation of Horse Behavioral responses depicted in media. You can skip ahead and test your skills with a playlist of short video clips.

Educational course links:
The Horse Portal short courses include Horse Behavior and Safety youth and adult offerings: https://thehorseportal.ca/courses/

12-week Equine Behavior course link: uoguel.ph/eq-behaviour:

https://courses.scs.uoguelph.ca/search/publicCourseSearchDetails.do?method=load&courseId=17912

Short Video clips from Merkies Study can be found in YouTube video playlist: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dTNMMZYf6X4&list=PLyInkrl6BP-JK02mECagqIGNQMyC4sURM&index=1

Short clips of interactive behavior videos associated with the study:

Clip 1 Horse being groomed:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fzInlvwAPE&list=PLyInkrl6BP-JK02mECagqIGNQMyC4sURM&index=1

Clip 2 Groundwork:

https://youtu.be/lSNXDAPJDh4?list=PLyInkrl6BP-JK02mECagqIGNQMyC4sURM

Clip 3 Haltering: https://youtu.be/EKDBLiXrFD4?list=PLyInkrl6BP-JK02mECagqIGNQMyC4sURM

Clip 4 Fly spray: https://youtu.be/3qKxzc5jfsQ?list=PLyInkrl6BP-JK02mECagqIGNQMyC4sURM

Clip 5 Stall interaction: https://youtu.be/TKYtZGa4RIo?list=PLyInkrl6BP-JK02mECagqIGNQMyC4sURM

Clip 6 Tarp exercise: https://youtu.be/5h5iU1dGGy0?list=PLyInkrl6BP-JK02mECagqIGNQMyC4sURM